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DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

With the advancement of Data Communication facilities the communication between computers has increased and thus it has extended the power of computer beyond the computer room. Now a user sitting at a one place can communicate with computers on any remote site through communication channel. In this post you can understand about Communication Protocols and Data Transmission modes.

In Data Communication Four basic terms are frequently used

1. DATA :  A collection of facts in raw forms that become information after processing.
2. SIGNALS : Electric or Electomagnetic encoding of Data.
3. SIGNALING : Propagation of signals across a communication medium.
4. TRANSMISSION : Communication of Data achieved by the processing of signals. 

COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS
Data communication software It is software that enables us to communicate with other systems. The Data communication software instructs computer systems and devices as to how exactly data is to be transferred from one place to another. The procedure of data transformation in the form of software is commonly known as protocol.

The Data transmission software or protocols perform the following functions for the efficient and error free transmission of data.

• Data Sequencing : A long message to be transmitted is broken into smaller packets of fixed size for error free data transmission.
• Data Routing : It is the process of finding the most efficient route between source and destination before sending the data.
• Flow Control : All machines are not equally efficient in terms of speed. Hence the flow control regulates the process of sending data between fast sender and slow receiver.
• Error Control :  Error detecting and recovering is the one of the main functions of communication software. It ensures that data are transmitted without any error.

DATA TRANSMISSION MODES

• Simplex : In simplex mode the communication can take place in one direction. The receiver receives the signal from the transmitting device. In this  mode the flow of information is Uni-directional. Hence it is rarely used for data communication. Example  Mouse, Keyboard.
• Half  Duplex : In Half duplex mode the communication channel is used in both directions, but only in one direction at a time. Thus a half duplex line can alternately send and receive data. Example Army phones (Walky Talky).
• Full Duplex : In full duplex the communication channel is used in both directions at the same time. Use of full duplex line improves the efficiency as the line turnaround time required in half duplex arrangement is eliminated. Example Telephone line.

COMMUNICATION MEDIA

These are the major communication devices which are frequently used  :

Wire Pairs.

Wire pairs are commonly used in local telephone communication and for short distances digital data communication. They are usually made up of  copper and the pair of wires is twisted together. Data transmission speed is normally 9600 bits per second in a distance of 100 meter.

Coaxial Cables

Coaxial cable is group of specially wrapped and insulated wires that are able to transfer data at higher rate. They consist of a central copper wire surrounded by an insulation over which copper mesh is placed. They are used for long distance telephone lines and local area network for their noise immunity and faster data transfer.

Microwave 

Microwave systems uses very high frequency radio signals to transmit data through space. The transmitter and receiver of a microwave system should be in line of sight because the radio signal cannot bend. With microwave very long distance transmission is not possible. In order to overcome the problems of line of sight and power amplification of weak signal, repeaters are used at intervals of 25 to 30 kilometers between the transmitting and receiving end.

Communication Satellite

The problem of line sight and repeaters are overcome by using satellites which are the  most widely used data transmission media in modern days. A communication satellite is a microwave relay station placed in outer space. INSAT-1B is such a satellite that can be accessible from anywhere in India. In satellite communication, microwave signal is transmitted from transmitter on earth to the satellite at space. The satellite amplifies the weak signal and transmits it back to be receiver.The main advantage of satellite communication is that it is a singe microwave relay station visible from any point of a very large area. In microwave the data transmission rate is 16 giga  bits per second. They ahttps://unwantedcarremovalsydney.com.au/re mostly used to link big metropolitan countries.

TOPOLOGY 

The geometric arrangement of a computer system. Common topologies include Bus, Star, Ring...

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OPERATING SYSTEM ( WINDOWS )

OPERATING SYSTEM

An Operating system is a programme which acts as an interface between user and machinUsing Internete and control all other components of the computer system.

Features of Windows 98 

• Creates the link between you, the user and the computer by providing an interface in which you can communicate with the computer.
• Serves as the base software on which a variety of programs can operate. Examples include Ms Word, Ms Excel, MS Power Point, and Ms Access.
• Handles Interrupt functions, such as managing the computer memory, input and output operations.
• Provides a series of utilities specialized programs to manage your system and commands that you can use to manage your files, folders and disks.
• A Graphical User Interface (GUI), which uses pictures, symbols, windows, and words on your screen that you control with the mouse.
• Built in program, or accessories like wordpad, notepad calculator, paint etc.
• The World Wide Web  (WWW) is easily accessible from anywhere in windows. you can communicate over the internet.  Using Internet tools included windows you can send e mail, chat,  etc.

LANGUAGE PROCESSOR

 Compiler  It convert the high level language programme into machine level language or low level language in one go only and reports all the errros of the programme along with line numbers.

Interpreter This is also a language processor it converts a high level language programme  into machine level or low level language by converting and executing it line by line. If there is any error in any line it reports it at the same time and stop the programme execution until the error of line is removed.

Assembler  It converts a assembly language or middle level language into machine level language or low level language.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE.

It is the set of programmes to carry out operations from a specified application.

TYPES OF APPLICATION  

Customized Application Software

General Applicant Software or General Purpose

CUSTOMIZED APPLICATION SOFTWARE

This type of software is made to meet all the requirements specified by a particular person this is self made software for individual use not everyone can use it.

GENERAL APPLICATION SOFTWARE

This type of software is developed keeping in mind the general requirements for carrying out a specific task.

MS DOS Based Program 

You can run MS DOS based  program by using the MS DOS prompt commands in the program menu. Click on start and then choose programs  MS DOS prompt. This opens an MS DOS command window in which you can run your MS DOS based programs

Using MS DOS Commands

 We have given some example below to know how to use MS DOS based commands.

1.  Be sure that the MS DOS window is active.
2. At the MS DOS prompt type DIR and press Enter. The files and folders stored in your open folder on the hard disk appear in a list .The DIR command means "directory" and lists all files and folders in your current directory (folder).
3. At the next MS DOS prompt, type "CD\Windows" and then press ENTER. The folder changes to the windows folder in the same drive. The CD command means "change directory". The backslash (\) and windows indicates the directory path for your Windows folder.

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COMPUTER MEMORY

MEMORY ORGANIZATION

A memory unit  is the collection of storages units or devices together. The memory units stores the binary information in the form of bits. Generally memory/storage is classified into two categories.

Volatile Memory  : This loses its data, when power is switched off.
Non Volatile Memory : This is a permanent and does not lose any data when power is switched off.

RAM = Random Access Memory.
ROM = Read Only Memory.
HDD = Hard Disk Drive.
SDD = Solid State Drive.
USB = Universal Serial Bus.
SRAM = Static RAM.
DRAM = Dynamic RAM.
SDRAM = Synchronous Dynamic RAM
RDRAM = Rambus Dynamic RAM.
DDR SDRAM = Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM.

MAIN MEMORY
The memory unit that communicates directly within the CPU auxiliary memory and cache memory is  called Main memory.
It is the central storage unit of the computer system. It is a large and fast memory used to store data during computer operations.
The main memory occupies the central position because it is equipped to communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory devices through input /output processor.

D RAM 
Dynamic RAM, It is made of capacitors and transistors and must be refreshed every 10- 100 ms. It is slower and cheaper than S RAM.

S RAM 
Static RAM, has a six transistor circuit, in each cell and retains data, until powered off

N VRAM
Non Volatile RAM, retains its data, even when powered off.

ROM  Read Only  Memeory.
It is volatile and is more like a permanent storage for information. It also stores the boot strap loader program, to load and start the operating system when computer is turned on.

Characteristics of Main Memory.

• These are Semiconductor memories.
• Usually volatile memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• It is working memory of the computer.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer can not run without the main memory.

SECONDARY MEMORY

• This type of memory is also known as external memory or non volatile memory. It is slower than main memory.
• These are used for storing data/information permanently.

Characteristics  of Secondary Memory.

• These are magnetic and optical memories.
• It is known as backup memories.
• It is a Non Volatile memory.
• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
• Storage of data in a computer.
• Computer can run without Secondary Memory. 

AUXILIARY MEMORY 

• Auxiliary memory also known as auxiliary storage, secondary storage, secondary memory or external memory is a non volatile memory that is not directly accessible by the CPU, because it is not accessed via the input/output channel. 
• Auxiliary Memory access time is generally 1000 times that of the main memory, hence it is at the bottom of the hierarchy.
• Devices that provide backup storage are called auxiliary memory. Magnetic Disks and tapes are commonly used auxiliary devices such as optical disks.
• It is not directly accessible to the CPU, and is accessed using the input/output channel.
• The most common form of auxiliary memory are flash memory, optical disks, magnetic disks, and magnetic tape.  The latest addition to the auxiliary memory family is flash memory. 

FLASH MEMORY

An electronic  non volatile computer storage device that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed and work without any moving parts. Examples flash drives, memory cards. 

OPTICAL DISKS

A storage medium from which data is read and written by lasers. Optical disks can store much more data upto 6 gigabytes. more than most portable  magnetic media such as floppies. there are three types of optical disks  CD/DVD ,   WORM (Write once read many), EO (Erasable optical disks).

MAGNETIC DISKS

A magnetic disks is a circular plate constructed of metal or plastic coated with magnetized material. Both side of the disk are used and several disk may be stacked on one spindle. with read/write head available on each surface.  Bits are stored on the surface in spots along concentric circles called tracks. Tracks are commonly divided into sectors.. Examples Floppy Disk Drive, Hard Diak Drive.

CACHE MEMORY

• The Cache memory is used to store program data which is currently being executed in the CPU.
• Approximate time ratio between cache memory and main memory is 1 to 7.
• The data or content of the main memory that are used again and again by the CPU are stored in cache memory so that we can easily access that data in shrter time.

Characteristics of Cache memory

• Cache memory is faster than main memory.
• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
•  It stores the program that can be executed within a shorter period of time.
•  It stores data for primary use.
• It has limited capacity.
• Its very expensive.

MEMORY ACCESS METHODS
Each memory type is a collection of numerous memory locations. To access data from any memory first it must be located and then the data is read from the memory location.

Random Access Main memories are the random access memories in which each memory location has a unique address.

Sequential Access This method allows memory access in a sequence or in order.\

Direct Access In this mode information is stored in tracks, with each track having a separate read/write head.


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PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE C++

PROGAMMING LANGUAGE ( C++ )

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FACTS OF OOPS

• C++ oops aspect was inspired by a computer simulation language called simula 67.
• some major Operating system of modern times are Written in C++.
• JAVA is written in C++.
• C++ is a Object Oriented Programming ( OOP ) language which resolves around the concept of object .
• An entity in the system that can be defined as a set of properties & set of operations performed using entity property set is known as Object.
• OOP is a set of principle that are used by programmer to handle a large program easily.
• OOP is a method in which we divide our program in objects.

Features of C++ .

• C++ is a Middle level language.
• C++ supports Object Oriented Paradigm.
• C++ joins three separate programming tradition.
• Shared with non OOP predecssor language.
• Objects and classes.
• Class based vs prototype based.
• Dynamic dispatch.
• Encapsulation.
• Composition, Inheitence, and delegetion.
• Polymorphism.
• Open Recursion.

APPLICATION OF OOPS

• Client server system.
• Object Oriented Database.
• Object Oriented Distributed Database.
• Real time system Design.
• Simulation and Modeling system.
• Hypertext, Hypermedia.
• Neural Networking and Parallel programming.
• decision support and office Automation system.

IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES IN OOPS

• ENCAPSULATION 
• ABSTRACTION
• DATA HANDLING 
• POLYMORPHISM
• INHERITENCE

In C++ to avoid corruption of data we need three kinds of access specifier.

• Private 
• Public
• Protected.

CONCEPT OF CLASS AND OBJECT IN OOPS

• Class is a blueprint of an object.
• Class is a description of object property set and set of operation.
• Creating class is as good as definig a new datatype.
• Object is a run time entity.
• Object is an instance of a class.

Difference between Object and Class

    Object                                                                      Class

It is an instance of a class                                            Claas is a blueprint from which object is created.
Object is a real world entity                                        Class is a group of similar objects or information
such as pen, laptop, etc.                                               It is a logical entity.
It is a physical entity.                                                   Class is declared using class keyword.
Object is created through new keyword                       ex. class student{};
mainly. ex s.1 = newstudent();
Obj are created many times as per requirement.         Class is declared once.
It allocates memory when it is created.                       Class doesnt allocate memory when it is created.

C++ Functions.
BENEFITS OF FUNCTION

• Easy to read.
• Easy to modify.
• Avoids rewriting of same code.
• Easy to debug.
• Better memory utilization.

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COMPUTER NETWORKING (FDDI) Fibre Disrtibuted Data Interface. IEEE Standard

FIBRE DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE ( FDDI )

FDDI as a product of American National Standard Institute conforms to the Open system Interconection( OSI )  model of functional layer using other protocols..

What is FDDI ?.

• FDDI is a highly reliable way to transmit data using a double ring protocol based on the token ring protocol. A token ring protocol is a local area network where all the computers on the network are connected in a gaint circle and a token passing setup is emlpoyed to prevent data collision when two computers send data at the same time. FDDI  uses two rings that are independent of each other and transmit data in opposite directions.

FDDI USED..

• FDDI is used mainly in mission critical and high traffic networks where large amount of data flow need to flow quickly and efficiently. FDDI is used anywhere that utilizes a large network in need of high bandwidth.
• Bussinesses, The Government hospitals, and other medical fields, stock exchanges and money markets and automobile industry. It has become the main stay access method of high speed networking in locla area and metropolitan area networks in many places. 

Why Use FDDI ?

• FDDI offers more powerful workstations and servers, intensive network applications, growing distributed client/server applications, increasing number of network users and bigger and software applications. FDDI offers higher capacity and performance with more simultaneous transactions.

About FDDI..

• It is a standard for data transmission in a local area network it uses optical fibre as its standard underlying physical medium. altough it was also later specified to use Copper cable, in which case it may be called CDDI ( copper Distributed Data Interface ).
• FDDI provids a 100Mbits/s optical standard for data transmission in local area network that can extend in range upto 200  Kilometers. Although FDDI topology is a ring based token network. It did not use IEEE 802.5 token ring protocol instead its use 802.4 token bus timed token protocol.
• FDDI local area nerwork can supports thousand of users FDDI offers both a Double attached  station ( DAS ) counter rotating token ring topology and Single attached station ( SAS ) token bus passing ring topoogy.

FDDI Block Diagram.

FDDI  has a larger maximum frame size (4,352) bytes than the standard ethernet family which only supports maximum frame size (1500) bytes.

Designers normally constructed FDDI ring in a network topology such as "double ring of tree"> FDDI requires this network toplogy because the double ring actually passes through each connected devices and requires each such device to remain continously  operational.

FDDI was considered as attractive campus  backbone network topology int the early to mid 1990s since existing ethernet networls only offered 10Mbit/s data rates and token ring network only offered 4Mbit/s  or 16Mbit/s  rates.

FDDI was effectively made obsolete in local networks by fast ethernet which offered the same 100 Mbit/s  speeds.


FRAME FORMAT
The FDDI Data Frame  Format is ..

   PA         SD      FC        DA          SA            PDU            FCS       ED/FS
16 bits   8 bits   8 bits   48 bits      48 bits     4478*8 bit     32 bits     16 bits

( Where PA is the preamble, SA ia the Start Delimeter, FC is Frame Control, DA is the Destination Address, SA is the Source Address, PDU is Protocol Data Unit or Packet Data Unit, FCS is Frame Check Sequence, ED and FS are End Delimeter and Frame Status.


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COMPUTER NETWORK TOPOLOGY ( BUS, RING, STAR, MESH, TREE, HYBRID )

NETWORK TOPOLOGY

It is the schematic description of a network arrangement connecting various nodes ( Sender or Reciever ) through lines of connection.

Types of Topology.

1. Bus Topology.
2. Ring Topology.
3. Star Topology.
4. Mesh Topology.
5. Tree Topology.
6. Hybrid Topology.

BUS TOPOLOGY

It is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single cable. When it has exactly two ends points, It is called linear Bus topology.

Features.

• It transmits data in only one direction.
• Every device is connected to a single cable.

Advantages.

• Cost effective, 
• Used in small networks.
• Easy to Understand.
• Easy to expand joining two cables together 
• Cable required is least compared to other network topology.

Disadvantages.

• Cables fails then whole network fails.
• Cable has a limited length.
• Slower than the Ring topology and other topologies.

RING TOPOLOGY

It is called Ring topology because it forms a ring as each connected to another computer with the last one connected to the first.

Features.

• A number of repeaters are used for ring topology with large number of nodes because if someone wants to send some data to last node in the 100 topology with 100 nodes. Then the data will have pass through 99 node to reach the 100 node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the networks.
• The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each network node.
• Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted has to pass through each node of the network till the destination node.

Advantages.

• Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
• Cheap to install and expand.

Disadvantages.

• Troubleshooting is difficult in Ring topology.
• Failure of the computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR TOPOLOGY
In this topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. 

Features..

• Every node has its own dedicated to the hub.
• Hub acts as a repeater for data flows.
• Can be used with twisted pair, Optical fibre or Coxial cable.

Advantages.

• Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
• Hub can be upgraded easily.
• Easy to troubleshoot. 
• Easy to setup and modify.
• Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the node can work smoothly.

Disadvantages.

• Cost of installation is high.
• Expensive to use.
• If the hub failed then the whole network is stopped because all the node depend on the hub.
• Performance is based on the hub that is depend on its capacity.

MESH TOPOLOGY

It is point to point connection to other nodes or devices.All the network nodes connected to each other. Mesh has  n(n-1)/2  physically channels to link n device.

Features.

• Full connected.
• Robust.
• Not flexible.

There are two techniques to transmit data.

1. Routing. 
2. Flooding.

Advantages..

• Each connection can carry its own data load.
• It is robust.
• Fault is diagnosed easily.
• Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages..

• Installation and Configuration is high.
• Cabling cost is more.
• Bulk wiring is required.

TREE TOPOLOGY

It has a root node and all other nodes connected to its forming hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology. It should have least three levels to the hierarchy.

Features..

• Ideal if workstations are work in groups.
• Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages.

• Extension of star and bus topology.
• Extension of nodes is possible and easy.
• Easily managed and maintained.
• Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages.

• Heavily cabled , due to this it is more costly.
• If more nodes are added maintenance s difficult.
• Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID TOPOLOGY

It is a two different types of topologies, which is a mix of two or more topologies.

Features.

• It is a combination of two or more topologies.
• Inherits the advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages..

• Reliable as error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.
• Scalable as size can  be increased easily.
• Flexible.

Disadvantages..

• Complex in Design.
• Costly.

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PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE PHYTON

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE ( PHYTON )

Phyton is a popular programming language. It was created in 1991 by guido van Rossum.

  It is used for: 

•  Web Development 
• software Development 
• Mathematics
• System scripting

What Can Phyton Do ?.

• Phyton can be used on server to create web applications.
• Phyton can be used alonside software to create workflows.
• Phyton can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify files.
• Phyton can be used to handle big data and perform complex ,mathematics.
• Phyton can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production ready software development.

Why Phyton we Used ?

• Phyton works on different platforms ( Wndows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc ).
• Phyton has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
• Phyton has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer lines than some other programming languages.
• Phyton runs on a interpreter system, meaning that code can be executed as soon it is written. This means that prototyping can be very quick.
• Phyton can be treated iin  a procedural way, an Object Oriented way, or a functional way.

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GOOD TO KNOW ABOUT PHYTON..

• The most recent  major version of phyton is Phyton 3, However, phyton 2 although not being updated with anything other than secuirity updates. 

PHYTON Syntax..

• Phyton was designed for readability and has some similarities to the English language with influence from mathematics.
• Phyton uses new lines to complete a command, as oppposed to the other programming languages which often use semicolons or parantheses.
• phyton relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define space, such as the scope of loops, functions and classes.

Phyton Variables.

Unlike Other Programming languages, Phyton has no command for declaring a variable.

A variable is created the moment  you first assign a value to it. 

Example       x = 5;

                     y = "john"

                     print(x)

                     print(y)

Variables Names..

• A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character.
• A variable name cannot start with a number.
• A variable name can only contain alpha numeric, characters and undescores.
• Variables names are case sensitive ( all, All, and ALL are different ).

Phyton Numbers 

There are three numeric types in phyton:

• int 
• float
• complex

variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:

       x = 1       #int

       y = 4.7    #float

       z = 2j      #complex

INT

Int or integer is a whole number, posotive or negative, without decimals of unlimited length.

Example     x = 1

                   y = 23.56

                   z = -23456

                  print(x)

                  print(y)

                  print(z)

FLOAT

Float or "floating point number" is a number positive or negative, containing one or more decimals.

Example     x = 3.6

                   y = 1.5.6

                   z = -34.25

                  print(x)

                  print(y)

                  print(z)

COMPLEX

Complex number are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:

Example   x = 3+2j

                 y = 4j

                 z = -3j

                print(x)

                print(y)

                print(z)

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PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE JAVA BASIC OPERATORS

JAVA BASIC OPERATORS

Java provides a rich set of operators to manipulate variables. We can divide all the Java operators into the following categories.

1.   Arithmetic operators.
2.   Relational operators
3.   Bitwise operators.
4.   Logical operators.
5.   Assignment operators.
6.   Misc operators.

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1. The Arithmetic Operators.

Arithmetic operators are used in mathematical expressions in the same way that they are used in algebra.

Assume integer variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 , then..

2. Relational Operators.

There are following relational operators supported by java language.

Assume variable A holds 10, and variable B holds 20, then..

3. Bitwise Operators.

Java defines several bitwise operators, which can be applied to the integer types, long,  int, short, char, and byte..
Bitwise operators works on bit and performs bit by bit operation. Assume if A = 60 and B = 13, now in binary format they will be as follows .

 A = 0011 1100
B = 0000 1101

A&B = 0000 1100

A|B = 0011 1101

A^B = 0011 0001

!A = 1100 0011

Assume integer variable A holds 60 and variable B holds 13, then

4. Logical Operator.

Assume Boolean variables A holds true and variable B holds false, then

5. Assignment Operator.

Following are the assignment operators supported by java language.

1.   ( = )   Assigns value from right side operand  to left side operand.
                C = A+B  will assigns value of A+B into C.

2. ( += )  ADD AND assignment operator. Its ADD right operand to the left operand and assign  the                    result to left operand.
               C+=A equal to C = C+A .

3. ( -= ) Subtract AND assignment operator. Its subtract right operand from the left operand and                       assign result to the left operand.
            C-=A equal to C=C-A

4.  ( *= ) Multiply AND assignment operator. It multiplies right operand with the left and assign the                   result with the left operand.
               C*=A equal to C=C*A

5. ( /= )  Divide AND assignment operator. It divides right operand with the left and assign the                          result with the left operand.
               C/=A equal to C=C/A

6.  ( %= )  Modulos AND assignment operator. It divides right operand with the left and assign the                       result with the left operand.
                 C%=A equal to C=C%A
7. ( <<= ) Left Shift AND assignment operator
                C<<=2 is same as C = C<<2

8. ( >>= ) Right Shift AND assignment operator
                C>>=2 is same as C = C>>2


Misc Operator.

Conditional operator
Conditional operator is also known as ternary operator. This operator consists of three operand and is used to evaluate boolean expressions. The goal of the operator  is to decide,  which value should be assigned to the variable..

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